J Med Ethics. A novel approach to the detection of acromegaly: accuracy of diagnosis by automatic face classification. This will take a team effort and true representation of humility and togetherness. Privacy and data protections are key to advancing FRT and making it helpful. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Bookshelf But as previously stated, war and the strife and chaos that comes with it are undesirable; however, in this particular circumstance something that may be bad as war can be said to be a for a good cause. Consequentialism teaches that people should do whatever produces the greatest amount of good consequences. Consequentialism is a rival to such moral theories as deontology, contractualism, and virtue ethics. Robert Torrance continues a debate, started by Charlotte Blease in an earlier issue of the Journal of Medical Ethics, about what conditions must be met in order for patients to consent to receive electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) ( see page 371 ). Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. 2007;2(1):26. Why facial recognition is the future of diagnostics. B. Consequentialism- main emphasis is on the outcome or consequence of the action . By looking at the two ethical strands side-by-side we can quickly see that Deontology is distinctly focused on the individual, whereas Utilitarianism places importance on . Copyright 2023 American Medical Association. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). AWB. Articles. Our Biometric Future: Facial Recognition Technology and the Culture of Surveillance. I discuss this possibility briefly, and then set it aside. In particular, it retains a commitment in many jurisdictions to the Sanctity of Life Doctrine, though this is being shed or modified as assisted dying becomes legalised. In other words, the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness or welfare. On the one hand, the use of FRT to monitor the safety of dementia patients could be perceived as having benefits that outweigh the burdens of surveillance. FRT in health care also raises ethical questions about privacy and data protection, potential bias in the data or analysis, and potential negative implications for the therapeutic alliance in patient-clinician relationships. Participants were recruited from all settings working with patients of any age and any diagnosis. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. This helps prevent a surge of infected patients in the existing healthcare facilities. And it gives this general guidance on how to live: People should live so as to maximise good consequences. Philosophy , Volume 56 , Issue 218 , October 1981 , pp. Utilitarianism in this instance appears to give the morally incorrect answer. Mack H. FDNA launches app-based tool for clinicians using facial recognition, AI and genetic big data to improve rare disease diagnosis and treatment. Conclusion: Keeping to those rules ensures that. Clinical Informatics News. FOIA Watson M. Keeping your machine learning models up-to-date: continuous learning with IBM Watson machine learning (part 1). Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub L No. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. How could we have speeding laws, for example, if it would sometimes be ethical to break the speed limit? Privacy and data protection are thought to present challenges for the use of FRT for health applications. Indeed, society as a whole is more important than any one person in the eyes of a Utilitarian. Published November 9, 2017. Q: Roe v. Wade may soon be overturned by the Supreme Court, while at the same time other countries are loosening restrictions around abortion rights. Articles, podcasts, videos, research & courses tackling the issues that matter. FRT is being developed to predict health characteristics, such as longevity and aging.13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example.14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such as monitoring elderly patients for safety or attempts to leave a health care facility16 or monitoring medication adherence through the use of sensors and facial recognition to confirm when patients take their medications.17. Consequentialism plays a huge role in this scenario as in both cases results of the decision made can be either positive or negative. Human behavior prediction using facial expression analysis. Select Accept to consent or Reject to decline non-essential cookies for this use. For example, restricting the movement of unvaccinated individuals into the country reduces the spread of COVID-19. Washington Post. Consequentialism's definition merely. May 17, 2017. https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/. Epub 2011 Dec 6. Deontological Ethics. _____ ethics looks to the nature of relationships to guide participants in making difficult decisions. Deontology: sticking to your obligations and duties, so focusing on intentions rather than the outcomes of actions. Consequentialism in scenario. Accessed July 31, 2018. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Smart and Bernard Williams, 1973. As with any clinical innovation, FRT tools should be expected to demonstrate accuracy for specific uses and to demonstrate that overall benefits outweigh risks.26 Detecting and evaluating bias in data and results should also receive close ethical scrutiny.27 In machine learning, the quality of the results reflects the quality of data input to the system28an issue sometimes referred to as garbage in, garbage out. For example, when images used to train software are not drawn from a pool that is sufficiently racially diverse, the system may produce racially biased results.29 If this happens, FRT diagnostics might not work as well for some racial or ethnic groups as others. MeSH Nurses use their moral reasoning based on their beliefs and values when faced with ethical dilemmas. So, if Oliver had a wide network of adoring cat lovers because of his friendly, playful nature, unlike Benjy who prefers a life of peaceful solitude I should save Oliver as this would cause the least pain and produce the most pleasure for the people that know him. Utilitarians claim that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness and that what is desirable is pleasure and the freedom from pain. This document is part of a series of papers intended to introduce To identify the values, beliefs and contextual influences that inform decision-making. Williams example shows that consequentialism disregards the agents own personal commitments and allows for negative responsibility. consequentialism, In ethics, the doctrine that actions should be judged right or wrong on the basis of their consequences. This site uses cookies to recognize users and allow us to analyse site usage. In: Philosophical Foundations of Medical Law. First, as it is the general performance of all people that is collectively coordinated to promote the overall good, rule-consequentialism may distribute a fair share of the burden to all participants in society (Mulgan 2001, p. 54). Accessed March 28, 2017. Consequentialism is the position that morality is determined by the outcome of good or bad consequences caused by a person's actions. Also, it does not matter who performs the action, only the action itself as Williams example shows. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. January 11, 2018. https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477. Patient privacy. Atlas of human malformation syndromes in diverse populations. FRT systems can store data as a complete facial image or as a facial template.34 Facial templates are considered biometric data and thus personally identifiable information.35 The idea that a photo can reveal private health information is relatively new, and privacy regulations and practices are still catching up. JONAS Healthc Law Ethics Regul. It gives us this guidance when faced with a moral dilemma: A person should choose the action that maximises good consequences. It is a problem that consequentialism forces us to take an impersonal, objective view of situations and override some of our most cherished beliefs because of its requirement that we focus exclusively on the final result. The desire to save people's lives sometimes does not allow doctors to understand that some patients want the opposite. Our work is only made possible because of you. Abbasinia M, Norouzadeh R, Adib-Hajbaghery M, Nasiri MA, Sharifipour E, Koohpaei A, Eskandari N, Aghaie B. However, despite these efforts, the oppressing side ignores the foreign powers efforts. Epub 2021 Sep 1. 101-336, 104 Stat 327. FRT is being developed to predict health characteristics, such as longevity and aging. One doctor speaking to the Business Insider claimed: "If you had, let's say, an ICU that was overwhelmed, you're probably going to try and give some extra attention to healthcare workers because you need them to deliver care," he said. The result justifies the means are based on a consequentialism. In many hospitals and healthcare trusts across the world this is the thought process that is guiding their policies regarding who should be treated in hospitals. utilitarianism could be seen as a radically egalitarian philosophy. As with any new health technology, careful attention should be paid to the accuracy and validity of FRT used in health care applications as well as to informed consent and reporting incidental findings to patients. Is it okay to do bad things for a good cause? Protecting your patients interests in the era of big data, artificial intelligence, and predictive analytics. Indeed, no one can know the future with certainty. The best-known consequentialist ethical theory is utilitarianism, which says that the wrongness or rightness of an action depends on the amount of overall good or utility that is produced. Utilitarianism would permit a doctor to allow Patient A to die and for their organs to be used to save the lives of the other five patients. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. To do so, lets look at a current example of limited resources, such as ventilators, in hospitals during the Covid-19 outbreak and how we may decide which patients should be allocated these resources. Blease had argued that patients' attention should be . It presents Utilitarianism as characterised by the following five features: (1) consequentialism, (2) welfarism, (3) equality of moral status and impartiality, (4) maximisation, (5) aggregation. Keywords: Information. I intend to show that expecting individuals to take an impersonal standpoint in a decision that so greatly affects them is unrealistic and leads to alienation. Parmar DN, Mehta BB. The legal and ethical concerns that arise from using complex predictive analytics in health care. Designer Babies: Where Should We Draw the Line? This structure means that the ends often justify the means when seeking to create a specific result. Agera y Arcas B, Todorov A, Mitchell M. Do algorithms reveal sexual orientation or just expose our stereotypes? LinkedIn and 3rd parties use essential and non-essential cookies to provide, secure, analyze and improve our Services, and (except on the iOS app) to show you relevant ads (including professional and job ads) on and off LinkedIn. Taking an impersonal standpoint leads to alienation; this is the state of someone who has become separated from their commitments to themselves and others. In: Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Computing, Communication and Automation (ICCCA); April 29-30, 2016; Noida, India:399-404. The author(s) had no conflicts of interest to disclose. One potential issue is that of liability. PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology 1. Finally, Mill also claims that happiness is the only thing that is desirable in itself as an end. 2021 Sep 17;18(18):9786. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18189786. The most famous form of consequentialist ethics is utilitarianism which was first proposed by Jeremy Bentham and then furthered by John Stuart Mill in the 19th century. An interpretive exploratory study was undertaken, 11 registered acute care nurses working in a district general hospital in England were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. In this particular case, a foreign power decides to hear the cries of the oppressed and begins to lend its diplomatic and political support to make a moral claim for whatever sort of intervention to resolve the conflict. New technology may provide the answer. 2022 Jun;22:100717. doi: 10.1016/j.jemep.2021.100717. The final result was amazing, and I highly recommend www.HelpWriting.net to anyone in the same mindset as me. Accessed October 26, 2018. health. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. Accessed July 25, 2018. Accessed December 10, 2018. One of the consequences of a breach of confidentiality could be that the patient will lose trust in his/her doctor, and perhaps doctors generally, resulting in him/her not accessing healthcare in the future with a detrimental effect on his/her (and others?) https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app. Benthams views are most closely aligned withact utilitarianism. The happiness of the individual is overridden by the happiness of the masses. It appears that you have an ad-blocker running. As FRT becomes capable of detecting a wider range of health conditions, such as behavioral24 or developmental disorders,25 health care organizations and software developers will need to decide which types of analyses should be included in a FRT system and the conditions under which patients might need to be informed of incidental findings. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Key considerations included nursing's moral ontology, the nurse-patient relationship, potential impact on the profession, ethical principles and theories, moral culpability for acts versus omissions, the role of intention and the nature of the society in which euthanasia would be enacted. A heavy man in a sweat-stained khaki shirt turns out to be the captain in charge and, after a good deal of questioning of Jim which establishes that he got there by accident while on a botanical expedition, explains that the Indians are a random group of the inhabitants who, after recent acts of protest against the government, are just about to be killed to remind other possible protestors of the advantages of not protesting. One does not have to be a specialist in ethics to do so. Accessed March 12, 2018. To demonstrate this I will use an adapted version of John Harris Survival Lottery thought experiment (this thought experiment is a theoretical example used to highlight the objection and is not to be taken literally): Let us imagine we have five patients who require organ transplants. Four major themes emerged: 'best for the patient', 'accountability', 'collaboration and conflict' and 'concern for others'. Shakya S, Sharma S, Basnet A. How Should Clinicians Communicate With Patients About the Roles of Artificially Intelligent Team Members? Indeed, many Williams furthers this explanation; making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one (Consequentialism and its Critics, 1988). Brittany Hollister, PhD and Vence L. Bonham, JD, Ethical Dimensions of Using Artificial Intelligence in Health Care. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. Julian Savulescu and Dominic Wilkinson 2019. http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.0485. Molteni M. Thanks to AI, computers can now see your health problems. One recent example that gained notoriety was an FRT system used to identify gay men from a set of photos that may have simply identified the kind of grooming and dress habits stereotypically associated with gay men.30 The developers of this FRT system did not intend it to be used for a clinical purpose but rather to illustrate how bias can influence FRT findings.30, Thankfully, potential solutions for addressing bias in FRT systems exist. Information, consent, and informed consent. consequentialism in what makes the patient and everyone else happy with the outcome, and societal impacts with regards to the distribution of resources and the overall positive outcome to society. Christianity is one form of deontology and the Ten Commandments represent one set of rules. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Nurses use these in contributing to the resolution of these dilemmas. PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology, Physical Education and Health Education Faculty. 14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such . Learn more in our Cookie Policy. VAD can have numerous negative health effects such as dryness of the eye that can lead to blindness if untreated, reduced immune system response, and an increase in the severity and mortality risk of infections. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. Utilitarianism is a moral theory, which works as a form of consequentialism helps individuals to assess whether an action is good or bad. We've encountered a problem, please try again. The same could be said for Jim who by doing nothing is responsible for the lives of the twenty Indians. Does the pain that Jim would feel not need to be taken into account when looking at the best overall outcome? He noticed morality as an important part of daily life but also noticed there was no logical reason for following moral rules except for recognition from others or fear of punishment. Looks like youve clipped this slide to already. John Stuart Mill, a student of Benthams, disagreed. There are several varieties of utilitarianism. The consequentialist could retort that in calculating what course of action is right, the individuals integrity can be taken into account. So, to decide whether or not to take some step, we must calculate whether it will produce the best overall outcome for the highest number of people. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):9317. P2. He even developed a calculator to work out which actions were better or worse the felicific calculus. Chan School of Public Health. PMC Their justification is that this action would produce the most overall welfare.. For consequentialism, life is a numbers game; an action should aim to make the majority happy, regardless of who they are, and should aim to go for actions that produce minimal pain. Accessibility 2020 Feb;27(1):258-272. doi: 10.1177/0969733019832941. Her research focuses on neuroethics as well as the ethics of digital health technology and machine learning with a focus on mental health issues and special populations. Certainly, the use of utilitarian ethics in medical contexts is not without controversy and this is something which we shall next by looking at a well-known objection to utilitarianism using a thought experiment: The objection is that by only focusing on objectively promoting the greatest good, utilitarians can permit and indeed claim that certain actions, which appear morally wrong, are in fact the right action. Utilitarianism is one of the forms of consequentialism that states that everything has a consequence. National Library of Medicine In this example: A hospital has limited capacity to deal with Covid-19 patients and is having to decide between admitting a 20 year old patient, who is fit and well, and a 75 year old patient, who has a history of heart disease, to their last available ventilator. A consequence of consequentialism, however, is that it fails to respect the integrity of the individuals involved. April 11, 2017. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/. Managing ongoing swallow safety through information-sharing: An ethnography of speech and language therapists and nurses at work on stroke units. By saying that Jim should shoot the one Indian the consequentialist fails to take into account the impact that this would have on Jims life. Background: Complex and expensive treatment options have increased the frequency and emphasis of ethical decision-making in healthcare. The most famous version of this theory is utilitarianism. Is it better to give my money to charity or spend it studying medicine so I can save lives? A person should do whatever leads to the best consequence. Epub 2014 Sep 24. Moral distress was also evident in the literature and findings, with moral dissonance recognised and articulated by more experienced nurses. To this objection, the consequentialist can protest that alienation can be a virtue. As the saga unfolds we are to monitor, measure and maximise the consequences for the greater good of the larger number. This basic form of consequentialism holds an action as ethical if and only if it produces more beneficial/pleasure-causing outcomes than negative/pain-causing ones. This was his theory of rule utilitarianism. Consequentialism Consequentialism is a type of teleological theory -- consequentialist theories suggest that the moral value, the moral rightness or wrongness of an act, is entirely a function of the consequences, or the results of that act. Medical law exists at the intersection between consequentialism and deontology. Counselling and bespoke consulting programs to help you make better decisions and navigate complexity. Accessed October 26, 2018. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, Pub L No. McCullom R. Facial recognition technology is both biased and understudied. Any prior commitments are disregarded or, if taken into consideration, are unlikely to have any substantial effect on the outcome. Published March 3, 2014. If this is demanded of all moral agents, then general unhappiness is likely to ensue rather than the opposite. March 2018. https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b. Shedding Privacy Along with our Genetic Material: What Constitutes Adequate Legal Protection against Surreptitious Genetic Testing? He said, she said: Investigating the Christian Porter Case. Viewed from a consequentialist perspective, one of the primary purposes of an organizational ethics program is to ensure that the organization is not penalized for the actions of its individual employees and to avoid the bad consequences that might result from such actions (e.g., fines, lawsuits, etc). It emphasises four key ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice, which are shared by most ethical theories, and blends these with virtues and practical wisdom. Ethical theories (1) The correct moral decision or response is made by: Consequentialism: considering the outcomes, or consequences, of the act, NOT its intentions or motives. 13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example. . This is a worldview without tragedy or realism. One of the consequences of a breach of confidentiality could be that the patient will lose trust in It means any ethical theory which judges the rightness or wrongness of an action on whether or not the outcome is good or bad. The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. Killing the one Indian is going to have a profound effect on Jims life but for the consequentialist, Jims values are irrelevant. This is the basis of duty based ethics, also known as deontology, which we will turn our attention to in the next post. Ethical principles and concepts in medicine. But if telling a lie. Never kill an innocent person or never lie are examples of such rules. John Stuart Mill, one of the foremost Utilitarian moral theorists, sums up Utilitarianism as follows: "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." 80 Any account of Utilitarianism will have two central tenets. Undark. Chen S, Pan ZX, Zhu HJ, et al. First published Wed Nov 21, 2007; substantive revision Fri Oct 30, 2020. No other adults or swimmers are anywhere to be seen, so without your help the child will drown. But if telling a lie would help save a person's life, consequentialism says it's the right thing to do. Instead, Mill believed we should figure out which set of rules would create the most happiness over an extended period of time and then apply those in every situation. If the outcome is good, how one achieved the outcome is not that important. Particularly in Italy, where the death toll and strain on hospitals has reached a critical point, there is a policy now to prioritise treating younger patients and healthcare workers. You can read four articles free per month. There will need to be careful thought and study of the broader impact of FRT in health care settings. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. The Survival Lottery thought experiment highlights that there are actions which we consider morally right or wrong regardless of the amount of happiness or welfare produced. Consequentialism is a type of normative ethical theory which states that the moral quality of an action is completely determined by its consequences, and nothing else. Accessed January 13, 2018. Like above, what sorts of consequences are morally good and what sorts are morally bad need to be . Even if the damage to Jims integrity is taken into account, there is another problem: the consequentialist would regard Jims killing another person not merely as preferable, but as morally required. Sooner or later, after all diplomatic and political channels are exhausted to reach a solution, they begin to take up arms against the oppressor. Consequentialism focuses on promoting the best consequences, but what kind of consequences are the best? In effect we become moral martyrs, surrendering our integrity (leading to alienation) in order to achieve what they believe is morally right. What Are Important Ethical Implications of Using Facial Recognition Technology in Health Care? The most famous version of non-consequentialism is deontology, which holds that one has an absolute duty to obey certain rules. [4] Consequentialism What matters in this example is saving the highest number of lives, and how this is attained is unimportant. Facial shape analysis identifies valid cues to aspects of physiological health in Caucasian, Asian, and African populations. The other concern people express is the tendency of consequentialism to use ends justify the means logic. July 2, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Bina RW, Langevin JP. By continuing to browse the site with cookies enabled in your browser, you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with our privacy policy. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Development of a computer-aided tool for the pattern recognition of facial features in diagnosing Turner syndrome: comparison of diagnostic accuracy with clinical workers. Int J Environ Res Public Health. Something is then considered "wrong" if it creates the opposite reaction. Accessed March 28, 2017. Provide a clear and easy-to-understand guidelines. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press; 2019. What should he do?Bernard Williams in the book Utilitarianism: For and Against, by J.J.C. September 6, 2017. https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning. The oppressors force is relentless to crush the minority rebellion, and the repressive measures adopted in retaliation is specifically for the purpose of forcing the minority to subjugation under its iron fist and crush the rebellion to render the minority weak in the future. No one desires the strife of war in life, but it is sometimes necessary and morally justified to engage in war. However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the Indians himself. Deontology is a system of ethical analysis, most closely associated with Immanuel Kant, that bases the correctness of one's actions on fulfilling the duties of the actor (Alexander and Moore, 2008).Thus individuals have moral obligations to others and, if they fulfill those obligations, they are acting ethically; if they .
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